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وینچ معدنی LVD-24

این وینچ معدنی یک وینچ طراحی شده جهت معادن زغالسنگ با قدرت کشش 1250 کیلو نیوتن و سرعت 42 متر بر دقیقه است

این وینچ دارای ترمز و کلاچ دستی و موتور ضد انفجار با قدرت13 کیلووات است.

جهت اطلاعات بیشتر و خرید با تلفن 09121165333 شعبانی تماس حاصل فرمایید

جهت دریافت کاتالوگ محصول به بخش دانلود کاتالوگها مراجعه نمایید

 

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معرفی چراغ معدنی KL5LM ساخت شرکت ویزدوم چین

این چراغ یک چراغ انفرادی معدنی مناسب جهت معادن زغالسنگ و سایر معادن زیر زمینی است . چراغ دارای بدنه از جنس ABS و دارای 3 سورس LED توان بالا و باتری لیتیومی 5 آمپر ساعت است

چراغ بدلیل داشتن باتری لیتیومی از وزن بسیار کمی برخوردار بوده و زمان نوردهی آن نیز بدلیل استفاده از همین باتری و همچنین استفاده از LED به جای لامپهای رشته ای بسیار بالا و تا حدود 18 ساعت در حالت پر نور می باشد

میزان نوردهی آن 1600 لوکس بعد از یک ساعت کار در فاصله یک متری است که برای کار در تونل بسیار ایده آل می باشد

در ادامه توضیحات و شکل دستگاه بطور کامل که توسط شرکت سازنده معرفی شده است را مشاهده می کنید

جهت خرید و یا اطلاعات بیشتر با تلفن 09121165333 شعبانی تماس حاصل فرمایید

LED miner's lamp (LED cap lamp, LED safety lamp) NEW (2008-6)
The innovatively designed KL5M LED Li-ion Cap Lamp combines the latest lighting and battery technologies to result in a brighter and lighter cap lamp. Using lithium-ion technology in conjunction with a purpose designed LED the cap lamp is designed in accordance with the Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS). The KL5M is not only much smaller and ergonomically designed for wearer more comfortable than the traditional lead acid cap lamp, and they are one third of the weight at only 0.6kg. The use of lithium-ion technology also removes numerous hazards associated with the use of lead acid style batteries. Unlike traditional lead acid batteries, lithium-ion contains no dangerous chemicals or heavy metals and requires no maintenance such as topping up of acid. The KL5M significantly reduces cost of ownership with no requirement to replace bulbs and a service life three times longer than lead acid batteries. The cap lamp is also intrinsically safe and CE Certified (EN60079-0:2004, EN62013.1:2002, EN50020:2002, EN50033:1991) for use in explosive atmospheres. The KL5M was first introduced to the market in 2003 and has undergone constant refinements and improvements. The cap lamp is designed to withstand the harshest underground conditions and is manufactured from impact and temperature resistant Makrolon plastic material. The KL5M when fully charged holds its charge until use and will provide 15 hours of continuous light. To prolong the life of the cap lamp battery, the Lithium-ion battery has an over charge protection system that will automatically cut off the circuit to protect the battery from being over charged. Additionally, there is an automatic power off in the cap lamp so that if the surface of the lamp or the LED is broken it will automatically turn the power off for protection. The 2007 version of the KL5M LED Li-ion Cap Lamp has many improved features from its predecessor. A purpose designed LED with an upgraded antistatic capacity provides luminous flux of 90-110lm and increased brightness at 7,000-11,000lux. A new radiator in conjunction with the purpose designed LED has significantly reduced the amount of heat experienced at the glass. In addition, the cap lamp��s flood and spot light settings are operated by an upgraded push button. As an added safety feature the cap lamp now also incorporates a low battery warning with the last hour of discharge flashing every 5-10 seconds to warn the user. And the version 2008 is mainly improved base the version 2007 to make the lamp absolutely water proof and better usage with the button switch. The KL5M LED Li-ion Cap Lamp has set a new standard in reliability and safety for miner��s cap lamps. NOTE: we have patent of the lamp design, the patent No. is ZL 2006 3 0176325.1
Product Features:
Safety: Contained in a sealed battery case, the product has a short-circuit protection, LED light head lamp and anti-static housing which makes it explosion proof. The miner's lamp is CE Certified for use in explosive atmospheres such as coal mines.
Reliability: Tough housing, optimized design, a solid LED light that uses high efficient IC drivers guarantee the product is durable and strong. The durable Li-ion battery has an over charge protection system to protect the battery from over charging. The cap lamp is suitable for operation under harsh mining conditions.
Portability: Small in size, light in weight, ergonomically designed, maintenance free, simple charging, easy operation. The cap lamp has received praise from many miners and major mining companies.
Efficiency: LED light provides bright, clear, white light. The minimum luminous intensity is 7000-11000lux (at a distance of 1m). The quality of the light is maintained throughout the entire discharge cycle which lasts up to 15 hours. The battery has a life cycle of 1200 charges and discharges.
Environmental: The cap lamp is made from environmentally friendly Li-ion battery and other non hazardous materials. The KL5M is an environmentally friendly product as per RoHS Directive.
Economy: The cap lamp incorporates an environmentally friendly LiMn2O4 battery as a power source. The light is an efficient, high powered LED with a service life of over 30,000 hours. With no need to replace incandescent globes the KL5M eliminates the cost of labor and replacement parts associated with traditional lead acid batteries.
LED Miner's lamp Major Technical Specifications:
Features KL5M Specifications
Rated capability >5.5Ah (5.5-6.9Ah LiMn2O4 Li-ion battery)
Rated voltage 3.8V
Continuous discharging time 15h
Main light LED Working voltage 3.3V
Main light LED Working current 0.35A(0.35A-0.39A)
Main light Power 1W
Main light Luminous flux 100Lm(90-110Lm)
lamp lighting degree Initial Lighting degree 7000-11000Lux (distance in 1m)
lamp lighting degree Lighting degree at work(11h) 7000-11000Lux (distance in 1 m)
Main light Usage life hour 30000h
Accessory light Power 0.4W
Accessory light Usage life hour 100000h
Short circuit protect time 15ms
Usage duration of battery (recharges) 1200 recharges (in reasonable working condition)
Charging time 6h-8h
Dimensions 76x31x79mm (size of the li-ion battery)
Weight 0.6kg


Packaging Specifications for the KL5M and NWB-15:
NAME DESCRIPTION SPECIFICATION PACKING REMARK
KL5M) Li-ion Cap Lamp 78 x 31 x 79mm(battery), 0.6kg 43.5 x 36 x 21cm 20pcs, 14kg Carton
NWB-15 (GWB-15) Single unit portable charger; 85-265V, 50-60Hz 125 x 55 x 80mm 0.30kg 43.5 x 36 x 21cm 30pcs, 11kg Carton


New KL5M(2008-06) LED Light Unit Li-ion battery Miner Lamp


New KL5M(2008-06) LED Light Unit Li-ion battery Miner's Lamp


Summary of the advantages of the prod ucts are:��
1. the LED is specially designed for only us, the chip is made in a big radiator which well deals with the heating. 90% and up of other LED in the market are made in a very small radiator then connect the legs of the LED to an aluminum pcb as radiator which will be a problem as we research for a long time because there will be a gap between the LED and aluminum pcb after a certain time of usage, hence seriously affect the heating radiator, and hence accelerating the decay ratio of the LED. Our LED light is the latest version of 80-100lm to make the brightness of the lamp to be more than 10000lux in one meter.
2. with the minding function in the last hour by flashing softly in each 5-10seconds so that user can well use the balance time of the lamp. It is very good for the miners use our lamp in the mine.
3. Our power source is also specially made for us only. It is Li-ion battery of LiMn2O4 material which is the most safety with 5.5-6.9Ah capacity, light weight, small size.
4. The plastic parts of our lamp are made from famous German brand--Bayer PC material. This way is to make our lamp can bear the heat to 120 degrees, very good quality, anti-attached, not easy to deformation, durable, good looking and feels well.
5. the APCBs of the head lamp, the battery and the charger are designed by us. We have skilful and experienced engineers to design the APCB in the best working situation for the mines and for our lamps and chargers. This way we can well control the quality and improve the function frequently whenever better new ideas come up, including applying better components whenever available and improved the circuit design.
6. We frequently improve the design of the APCBs by modifying the circuit designs. Now the APCB of the charger is near the charging theory for the Li-ion battery; The APCB for the cap lamp with minding function and very good working functions too; The APCB for the battery is very safety, high efficient with many protection function.
7. We have strict testing of our product so that we can make sure the quality is in good situation. For example, we use 1.5 atmosphere pressures to test the lamps working under the water. Since 2006 to now, we have test for thousands of times and adjusted SOP of 18 times for the technical of production and 62 times modules of parts, finally we have made the lamps absolutely water proof since six months ago. And we will continue monitor the quality by testing and keep the Lean Production statue.
8. We have our own advanced injection machine to make the plastic parts so that we can make sure to use the best materials to make the parts and we can inspect the production of the plastic parts to make the plastic parts better quality.
9. We use all stainless steel to make the metal parts for best quality possible.
10. We have applied the production management of 5S; so that we can make sure the workers are strictly produce the goods to our requirements strictly.
11. We keep improving our quality as your back up so that you can feel release to open the market in the best way.

the lamp of old version of before



New KL5M(2006-12) LED Light Unit Li-ion battery Miner Lamp




New KL5M(2006-12) LED Light Unit Li-ion battery Miner's Lamp




KL5M(2004-10) LED Light Unit Li-ion battery Miner's Lamp



KL5M(2004-10) LED Light Unit Li-ion battery Miner's Lamp



KL5M(2004-10) LED Light Unit Li-ion battery Miner's Lamp




KL5M(2004-10) LED Light Unit Li-ion battery Miner's Lamp


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میل مته معدنی

میل مته های معدنی جهت استفاده از انواع سرمته در حفاری های تونل به کار می روند این میل مته ها در دو نوع فشاری و پیچی می باشند

سایز انواع میل مته ها از 80 سانتی متر الی 4 متر و انواعی هم بصورت متوالی بسته شده و قابل استفاده اند

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مشخصات فنی میل مته های روسی جهت دستگاههای اینگرسورلند - اطلس کوپکو - تورمارک و ...



Штанги буровые к отечественным буровым станкам : штанги СБШ, штанги БТС штанги СБУ, штанги НКР حفاری راد حفاری برای ماشین های داخلی : SBSH راد ، نمره بیوفیزیکال میله راد دانشگاه شهید بهشتی راد NKR

Штанга БТС -150, Æ 121, дл.2006,труба121х9 راد BTS -150 ، ئه 121 ، dl.2006 ، truba121h9
Штанга НКР-100, дл.1210, Ø 63,5,труба 63,5х9 راد NKR - 100 ، dl.1210 ، Ø 63،5 ، ترومپت 63.5 x9
Штанга СБУ-100 (БМК-4) дл.0,96 89,тр.89х9 دانشگاه شهید بهشتی راد - 100 (BMP - 4) dl.0 ، 96 ، 89 æ ، tr.89h9
Штанга СБУ-100 дл.2,0м, Ø 89мм,труба 89х6мм راد SSU - 100 dl.2 ، 0m ، Ø 89mm ، 89h6mm لوله
Штанга СБУ-125, дл.4м, Æ 89мм, труба 89х6мм راد SSU - 125 ، dl.4m ، æ 89mm ، 89h6mm لوله
Штанга СБУ-125, дл.2м, Æ 89мм, труба 89х6мм راد SSU - 125 ، dl.2m ، æ 89mm ، 89h6mm لوله
Штанга СБУ-125, дл.2,5м, Ø 89мм,труба 89х6мм راد SSU - 125 ، dl.2 ، 5M ، Ø 89mm ، 89h6mm لوله
Штанга СБУ-125, дл.1,5м, Ø 89мм,труба 89х6мм راد SSU - 125 ، dl.1 ، 5M ، Ø 89mm ، 89h6mm لوله
Штанга СБШ راد SBSH 160/200, 168х35х8500 160/200 ، 168h35h8500
Штанга СБШ راد SBSH 250, 180х20х8000 250 ، 180h20h8000
Штанга СБШ راد SBSH 250, 180х35х8000 250 ، 180h35h8000
Штанга СБШ راد SBSH 250, 180х40х8000 250 ، 180h40h8000
Штанга СБШ راد SBSH 250, 203х22х8000 250 ، 203h22h8000
Штанга СБШ راد SBSH 250, 203х22х8185 250 ، 203h22h8185
Штанга СБШ راد SBSH 250, 203х28х8000 250 ، 203h28h8000
Штанга СБШ راد SBSH 250, 203х38х8000 250 ، 203h38h8000
Штанга СБШ راد SBSH 250, 203х38х8200 250 ، 203h38h8200
Штанга СБШ راد SBSH 250, 203х50х8000 250 ، 203h50h8000
Штанга буровая СБШ-250, 203х50х8295 راد حفاری SBSH - 250 ، 203h50h8295
Штанга буровая 3СБШ-200, 180х20х11795 راد حفاری 3SBSH - 200 ، 180h20h11795
Штанга буровая 4СБШ-200, 180х20х8102 راد حفاری 4SBSH - 200 ، 180h20h8102
Штанга буровая 5СБШ-200, 180х20х9600 راد حفاری 5SBSH - 200 ، 180h20h9600
Штанга забурная 5СБШ-200, 180х20х2600 راد zaburnaya 5SBSH - 200 ، 180h20h2600
Забурник 4СБШ-200Н هر چیزیکه وسیله سوراخ کرد نباشد 4SBSH - 200N

Комплектующие изделия к штангам отечественного производства قطعات و اجزای تشکیل به میله از تولید داخلی

Муфта штанги СБШ-160/200 راد کلاچ SBSH-160/200
Муфта штанги СБШ-250 کلاچ راد SBSH - 250
Муфта штанги 3СБШ-200 کلاچ راد 3SBSH - 200
Муфта штанги 4СБШ-200 کلاچ راد 4SBSH - 200
Муфта штанги 5СБШ-200 کلاچ راد 5SBSH - 200
Ниппель штанги СБШ-160/200 میله نوک پستان SBSH-160/200
Ниппель штанги СБШ-250 میله نوک پستان SBSH - 250
Ниппель штанги 3СБШ-200 میله نوک پستان 3SBSH - 200
Ниппель штанги 4СБШ-200 میله نوک پستان 4SBSH - 200
Ниппель штанги 5СБШ-200 میله نوک پستان 5SBSH - 200
Переходник долотный СБШ-160/200 دریل بیت SBSH-160/200 آداپتور
Переходник долотный СБШ-250 دریل بیت آداپتور SBSH - 250
Переходник долотный 3СБШ-200 دریل بیت آداپتور 3SBSH - 200
Переходник долотный 4СБШ-200 دریل بیت آداپتور 4SBSH - 200
Переходник долотный 5СБШ-200 دریل بیت آداپتور 5SBSH - 200
Переходник опорного узла СБШ-160/200 آداپتور پشتیبانی SBSH-160/200 مونتاژ
Переходник опорного узла СБШ-250 آداپتور پشتیبانی مونتاژ SBSH - 250
Переходник опорного узла 3СБШ-200 آداپتور پشتیبانی مونتاژ 3SBSH - 200
Переходник опорного узла 4СБШ-200 آداپتور پشتیبانی مونتاژ 4SBSH - 200
Переходник опорного узла 5СБШ-200 آداپتور پشتیبانی مونتاژ 5SBSH - 200

Комплектующие изделия для бурового става J-1 (к буровым станкам SOILMEC, EGTEHNOLOGY, CASAGRANDA, RAPTOR) قطعات برای حفاری ترکیب ج - 1 (برای ماشین آلات حفاری SOILMEC ، EGTEHNOLOGY ، CASAGRANDA ، دزد)

Буровая штанга дл. راد حفاری در دسی لیتر. 1000 мм 1000 میلی متر
Буровая штанга дл. راد حفاری در دسی لیتر. 1500 мм 1500 میلی متر
Буровая штанга дл. راد حفاری در دسی لیتر. 2000 мм 2000 میلیمتر
Буровая штанга дл. راد حفاری در دسی لیتر. 2500 мм 2500 میلی متر
Буровая штанга дл. راد حفاری در دسی لیتر. 3000 мм 3000 میلیمتر
Монитор Ø 90 مانیتور 90 Ø
Монитор Ø 110 مانیتور Ø 110
Вертлюг цементный (в т.ч. Возможна поставка отдельно — верхний корпус, нижний корпус, вал цементного вертлюга, шайба, кольцо сальника вертлюга, ухо) سیمان مفصل گردنده (از جمله تحویل به صورت جداگانه -- بالاتنه و پایین بدن ، شفت سیمان واشر مفصل گردنده ، حلقه گردان مهر و موم گوش)
Переходник (цем.воз.) межвертлюговый آداپتور (tsem.voz.) Mezhvertlyugovy
Переходник цемент. آداپتور سیمان. вертлюга-штанги مفصل گردنده - مفتول
Переходник монитор-шарошка آداپتور مانیتور - برش
Долото торцовое (копыто) Æ 125 اسکنه صورت (سم) ئه 125
Ключ под штангу هالتر کلیدی
Направляющие штанги راهنمای - مفتول
Долото 3-х перое Æ 120 3-63,5 اسکنه 3 peroe æ 3-63،5 120

Комплектующие изделия для бурового става J-2 (к буровым станкам SOILMEC, EGTEHNOLOGY, CASAGRANDA, RAPTOR) قطعات برای حفاری ترکیب ج - 2 (برای ماشین آلات حفاری SOILMEC ، EGTEHNOLOGY ، CASAGRANDA ، دزد)

Буровая штанга дл. راد حفاری در دسی لیتر. 1000 мм 1000 میلی متر
Буровая штанга дл. راد حفاری در دسی لیتر. 1500 мм 1500 میلی متر
Буровая штанга дл. راد حفاری در دسی لیتر. 2000 мм 2000 میلیمتر
Буровая штанга дл. راد حفاری در دسی لیتر. 3000 мм 3000 میلیمتر
Монитор Ø 90 (в т.ч. Возможна поставка отдельно — внешний корпус монитора, форсунка воздушная, стопорный винт) Ø نظارت بر 90 (از جمله تحویل به صورت جداگانه -- مورد مانیتور خارجی ، نازل هوا ، پیچ)
Вертлюг воздушный ( в т.ч. Возможна поставка отдельно — внешний корпус, втулка бронзовая воздушного вертлюга, распорное кольцо, воздушный вал цементного вертлюга, цементный вал воздушного вертлюга) هوا گردان (از جمله تحویل به صورت جداگانه -- محفظه بیرونی ، قطب هوا فضا برنز حلقه مفصل گردنده ، هوا شفت سیمان مفصل گردنده ، سیمان شفت مفصل گردنده هوا)

Комплектующие изделия для буровой установки «SOILMEC» قطعات برای اماده شدن «SOILMEC»

Накладка стола SM 405 (103)86x60(3) روکش جدول سید محمد 405 (103) 86x60 (3)
Накладка стола SM 400 115x72(3) روکش جدول سید 400 115x72 (3)
Накладка стола SM 405 85.5x70(1) روکش جدول سید 85.5x70 405 (1)
Зажимные губки вращателя SM405 (400.103) — клин чака بخش داخلی SM405 روتاتور (400.103) -- گوه چاک
Клин демонтажного стола جدول گوه قطع

Комплектующие изделия для буровой установки «EGTEHNOLOGY» قطعات برای اماده شدن «EGTEHNOLOGY»

Накладка EGTMD 5000 (3000) انگشت EGTMD 5000 (3000)
Зажимная губка вращателя — 02БУ EGT5000(3000) روتاتور فک -- 02BU EGT5000 (3000)
Стопорный палец ползуна قفل قوچ انگشت

Комплектующие изделия для буровой установки «RAPTOR» قطعات برای اماده شدن «دزد»

Зажимная губка вращателя — 03БУ «RAPTOR» روتاتور فک -- 03BU «دزد»
Плашка верхнего и нижнего стола «RAPTOR» مرگ بالا و پایین جدول «دزد»


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اطلس تمام رنگی کانی ها

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جدول زمان زمین شناسی

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Geological time scale

  

The history of the Earth can be displayed in the form of a calendar which is based on the observation of rocks formed through time. Depending on the location, the formation of rocks has recorded different (regional) histories describing the magmatic, tectonic, hydrospheric, or biospheric evolutions, and thus different calendars have been generated. Geologists (stratigraphers) are attempting to unify these different calendars. Stratigraphers define rock units bracketed between two boundaries that can be correlated worldwide. The succession of these modern units is the global geological time scale.

 

Stratigraphical units

 

In general, the evolution of the Earth is continuous, so fixing the location of the unit boundaries can be achieved only through convention (decisions are made under the aegis of the International Commission on Stratigraphy). Stratigraphers use a variety of tools for characterizing the age of a rock, including physical ages, fossils, magnetism, and chemical properties, all of which have evolved through time. There are three intervals in the history of the Earth (Archean-Proterozoic, Phanerozoic, Plio-Quaternary) with each one showing distinct material available for characterizing rocks; thus, there are three successive kinds of geological time scale. In the earliest time scale, during Archean and Proterozoic eons, fossils are rare or absent in most rocks, and the major tool is the physical dating process based on naturally unstable isotope decay used by geochronologists. For this interval of time, the boundaries of the calendar units are defined by selected numerical ages (Fig. 1). These ages are conventionally abbreviated Ma (Mega anna, or million years, following recommendation of the Subcommission on Geochronology).

 

 

Fig. 1  Agreed-upon geological time scale of the pre-Phanerozoic history of the Earth. The beginning of the Earth is estimated to be 4,470 to 4,570 Ma, with a preferred age at 4,550 Ma.

 

 

 

fig 1

 

 

 

During the Phanerozoic Eon certain animals and plants elaborated skeletons or exoskeletons that, when preserved as fossils, provide an additional means of time correlation (Fig. 2). Up to about 5 Ma, these fossils become the major tool for determining the relative age of a rock. Together with other physicochemical characteristics, fossils allow a definition of stages which cover an average duration of about 5 Ma each. For the last 5 Ma, Plio-Quaternary time, there is evidence that the evolution of the environment on Earth is diversified and well represented in the geological record.

 

 

Fig. 2  Simplified geological time scale of the Phanerozoic Eon. From about 120 possible stages, only one-fourth are formally defined in modern terms. Among others, many are mostly used regionally (in parentheses) with less precise boundaries and content compared to formal ones. Stages are not shown for some epochs for which no realistic subdivision can be recommended today. Ages given in two columns are shown without error bar when they are obtained from an interpolation procedure. For some boundaries, the error bar is asymmetrical; for example, the Aptian-Albian boundary has a preferred age at 108 Ma, but this age is constrained only between 111 and 107 Ma. (After G. S. Odin, Geological Time Scale, C. R. Acad. Sci., 318:59–71, 1994)

 

 

 

 

fig 2 

 

 

Most stratigraphical tools can be used continuously in this young interval, each tool providing a specific time scale. Because several tools can often be used to characterize (that is, to date) a single rock, it is easy to connect all these time scales. A variety of easily interchangeable time scales are useful. However, the absolute time dimension for all time scales can be calibrated only by using geochronology. The progress toward a common terminology and geological time scale benefits from three factors: better definition of the conventional units, better geochronological calibration, and a potential for extrapolating between calibrated ages.

 

Geochronological calibration

 

Progress in geochronological calibration benefits from both new technology and new geochronological information. During the 1990s, the precision and reproducibility of the measurements obtained using mass spectrometry have increased significantly. This improvement offers the possibility of dating minute quantities of certain material with remarkable precision. Using the uranium-lead (U-Pb) dating method, the age of a single crystal of zircon, 200 micrometers in length and 10 μm in diameter, can be measured. More significantly, several portions of this same crystal can be dated separately, allowing for verification of the internal consistency of the data obtained from the single crystal. For the potassium-argon (K-Ar) dating method, developments in the irradiation techniques which transform the original potassium into argon allow single biotite mica flakes 500 μm in diameter and 10 μm thick to be dated. Laser heating can also give several ages obtained from different points of a single crystal.

Explosive volcanic eruptions producing ash clouds blown over large areas are common. The ability to date small quantities of material has led to the search for minor volcanic events within the stratigraphical record. This advance is important because the same volcanic material covers both marine and continental areas, sometimes at the scale of a continent, allowing correlation of distant deposits. In addition, there is great interest in this method since explosive volcanism often scatters a variety of minerals, including uranium-bearing and potassium-bearing ones. Thus, the geochronologist can perform measurements on independent isotopic systems in order to make a reciprocal check of the validity of the calculated ages. The calibration of the geological time scale is mostly realized through the study of crystal-bearing volcanic dust discovered in sediments. Precise dating can also be achieved through a variety of other datable materials. For example, a few tens of milligrams of microtektite particles (scattered in wide areas when an asteroid collides with the Earth) can be dated. Another example is calcite crystallized in paleosols during cyclic deposition in shallow basins. Because this calcite is associated with organic matter which favors uranium enrichment, and is formed essentially at the time of deposition, calcite crystals become a potentially datable material using uranium-lead methods.

 

Two examples of refinement

 

One example of recent refinement concerns the dating of the Eocene-Oligocene boundary. That boundary has long been known as the Grande Coupure (great break) in the history of European land-mammal evolution. There have been a few European studies which documented an age at about 34 Ma. But the age of the boundary was assumed to be about 37–38 Ma by some North American geologists. Paleontologists did not like the latter age because, in North America, the 38-Ma-old mammals were dated using contemporaneous volcanic flows and seemed less evolved than those known to be at the stratigraphical boundary in Europe. The problem was solved due to a better boundary stratotype discovered near Ancona in east-central Italy. Minerals sampled from several layers of volcanic dust interbedded in the marine deposits of the stratotype were dated. The results indicated an age of about 33.7±0.5 Ma for the boundary. This result confirmed the later of the two previous proposals demonstrating that the evolution of mammals in Europe and North America was synchronous.

Another significant example of the beneficial combination of improved stratigraphical definition and modern geochronological dating is given by the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary. The base of the Cambrian (and of the Phanerozoic Eon) had long been placed at the first occurrence of skeletalized fossils including trilobites (arthropods). Later, a Tommotian pretrilobitic stage was added below it in view of the presence of older faunal remains, such as archaeocythids (calcitized spongelike forms), which have been well documented on the Siberian Platform. Before 1980, the earliest skeletalized faunas were estimated to be between 570 and 590 Ma. However, independent geochronological data were gathered from northern France, southern Britain, Morocco, and Israel in the early 1980s. These data were obtained from levels located below the first occurrence of trilobites in the different countries. The data showed that trilobites were younger than 530 (±10) Ma. In the following years, older faunas known as small shelly fossils contemporaneous with trace fossil assemblages were discovered in China, Australia, the Siberian Platform, and Canada. A modern Precambrian-Cambrian conventional boundary was definitely fixed in 1992 at the base of this fauna in Canada. From new geochronological information obtained from volcanic zircon sampled from the above locations, an age of 540 (±5) Ma was documented for that boundary. This has been of great consequence, considering that the end of the Cambrian is about 500 Ma. The apparently extraordinary radiation of skeletalized metazoans observed within the Cambrian took only a few tens of millions of years (instead of 100 Ma as thought in the mid-1980s). This extraordinary radiation must be compared to the evolution observed over the next 500 Ma during which no new important phyla were created. Two examples that help provide better understanding of geological phenomena connected to the precise dating of geological strata are the short duration of the important biological cuts occurring at the Permian-Triassic (Paleozoic-Mesozoic) boundary and the Cretaceous-Palaeogene (Mesozoic-Cenozoic) boundary.

 

Extrapolation procedures

 

The direct geochronological calibration method will never allow for the continuous calibration of every point of geological history, since datable material is much too scarce in rocks. However, continuous dating can be refined through the use of interpolation procedures between geochronologically calibrated points. This principle consists in combining those tie points with a continuous geological phenomenon. Commonly used phenomena are rhythmic sedimentation and the oceanic record of past magnetic fields. When the rhythmic deposition of sediments can be related to the orbital (Milankovitch) parameters of the Earth, the time scales of which are reasonably well understood, the duration of deposition can be estimated when combined with nearby measured ages.

Another procedure considers the aperiodic change (reversal) of the direction of the Earth's magnetic field that is recorded in the oceanic plates being continuously formed at midocean ridges (separating two tectonic plates). For a given plate, the distance between two magnetic reversals is proportional to the time durations between reversals and spreading rate (which can be calculated from two geochronologically dated points). Thus, geological ages can be calculated for each point of the record, though with some degree of uncertainty.

The geological time scale is gradually becoming unified through an internationally agreed upon scale which is replacing a variety of regional scales. It is ironic that such an important improvement in calibrating this vast expanse of time is linked to the discovery of volcanic dust interbedded in sedimentary rocks.

 See also: Archeological chronology; Dating methods; Fossil; Geochronometry; Geologic time scale; Index fossil; Radiocarbon dating; Rock age determination; Sedimentary rocks; Stratigraphy

 

 

G. S. Odin

 

Bibliography

 

 

  • H. Blatt, W. B. N. Berry, and S. Brande, Principles of Stratigraphic Analysis, 1991
  • J. P. Grotzinger et al., Biostratigraphic and geochronologic constraints on early animal evolution, Science, 270:598–604, 1995
  • G. S. Odin, Geological time scale, C. R. Acad. Sci., 318:59–71, 1994
  • G. S. Odin et al., Numerical dating of Precambrian-Cambrian boundary, Nature, 301:21–23, 1983
  • G. S. Odin and A. Montanari, Radio-isotopic age and stratotype of the Eocene/Oligocene boundary, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 309:1939–1945, 198۹
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